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Figure 1.2 Major Participants in the Florida Statewide Greenways System Planning Project.

Role of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection

The Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) was the lead agency for the 1995-1998 ISTEA Enhancement Project. Senior staff from DEP's Office of Greenways and Trails were responsible for directing all project activities including:

· Planning and running periodic meetings of the project's lead planning partners - All project tasks were undertaken by a Lead Planning Team consisting of staff from the Office of Greenways and Trails (1995-1999), the University of Florida (1995-1999), the National Park Service's Rivers, Trails and Conservation Assistance Program (1995-1996) and 1000 Friends (1995). This team met periodically to address project issues as they arose, coordinate project tasks and plan activities involving all team partners. The Office of Greenways and Trails planned and chaired all Lead Planning Team meetings and kept records of meeting results.

· Directing the preparation of work plans for all project participants - At the start of the project, each of the project's lead planning team members prepared a detailed work plan outlining project tasks and interim products. These work plans were reviewed by the Office of Greenways and Trails and, once approved, were used to track progress and support invoicing and payments.

· Planning and hosting technical review sessions and other project-related meetings - Solicitation of technical input on the appropriateness of assumptions and methodologies used in the greenways design process was critical. Starting in 1995, the Office of Greenways and Trails planned and hosted sessions involving DEP staff and worked jointly with the University to host sessions involving outside reviewers. See Section 3 for a detailed description of technical review sessions and other project related meetings.

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· Coordinating project-related public input forums - Another project activity that will ultimately contribute to the acceptance and long-term success of the greenways in Florida was the planning and hosting of Florida Greenways forums to inform and solicit comments from the general public. The Office of Greenways and Trails coordinated the planning and hosting of these events, including the Florida Greenways Workshops held between February and October 1996 and DEP/Council/RGTF public workshops held in 1997 and 1998.

· Supporting the meetings of the Florida Greenways Coordinating Council and its associated committees and advisory groups _ The Greenways Council, its Planning Committee, and its six Regional Greenways Task Forces played critical roles in greenways design. Staff at the Office of Greenways and Trails provided planning and administrative support for the meetings of these groups (See Section 4 for more details).

· Addressing legislative issues _ Working with DEP's Office of Legislative Affairs, the Office of Greenways and Trails addressed legislative issues that arose during the project period. This was accomplished through response to legislative questions, attendance, when requested, at legislative meetings, and other appropriate activities.

· Administering budgets and disbursing project funds - As the lead contact for the Florida Department of Transportation on all programmatic and financial aspects of the ISTEA funding, the Office of Greenways and Trails prepared and administered budgets for each of the Lead Planning Team partners, reviewed quarterly progress reports and disbursed funds on performance of scheduled work plan tasks. In addition, the Department kept records of all project-related expenditures, reported periodically to the Department of Transportation and, when necessary, responded to questions and requests for additional information from that agency's project managers. The Office of Greenways and Trails also prepared budget requests to support greenways for inclusion in DEP's annual budget requests.

· Developing the Implementation Plan - Last but not least, DEP was responsible for development of the "5 year implementation plan" mandated by the legislature. This was completed with assistance from the Greenways Council, members of the RGTFs, the Trails Council, the general public and the University.

Role of the University of Florida

Although this Project has been based in the University of Florida's Department of Landscape Architecture it involved faculty and students from a broad array of other departments within the University community. Expertise in spatial analysis and GIS was provided by faculty and students from the Department of Urban and Regional Planning. Research on the planning of wildlife corridors, landscape ecology and reserve system design by faculty and students from the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation laid the groundwork for the Project, was furthered by the Project and is still being carried on today.

Project Tasks

The University's responsibilities and the source of additional information for each are as follows:

· Development of Project Goals and Objectives - Section 2 of this Report

· GIS Data Acquisition and Classification _ Section 6 of this Report

· Development and Refinement of a GIS Decision Support Model _ Section 3 of this Report

· Recommendations for Greenways Implementation - Released in July 1996 as Section 5 of the University's Final Report for Phase I of the Florida Statewide Greenways System Planning Project

· Support of Public Participation in Greenways Planning - Section 4 of this Report

· Development of Design Guidelines for Intersections of Greenways and Transportation Corridors - The Final Report for this task is available from Bob Grist at the University's Department of Landscape Architecture or from the Department of Transportation's Environmental Management Office.

· Development of a digital database representing lands of owners who do not wish to be included on greenways maps _ Section 5 of this Report

· Preparation of Reports, Maps and Digital Data for Distribution _

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- Phase I, Final Report Florida Statewide Greenways Planning Project, July 1996;

- Phase II, Interim Report Florida Statewide Greenways Planning Project, July 1998;

- this Report;

- sections of the 5 year Implementation Plan titled Connecting Florida's Communities with Greenways and Trails, September 1998; and

- various releases of the Florida Geographic Data Library _ described in Section 6 of this report

Role of Other Key Project Partners

Three other groups played particularly important roles in the Project: the Greenways Commission and the Greenways Council and the Trails Council.

Florida Greenways Commission

The Commission, which was created by Governor Lawton Chiles in 1993, provided technical input and general guidance during the project's first year in 1995. The Commission's System Design Committee, which met five times in 1995, played a critical role in the initiation of the Statewide Greenways System Planning Project. During that year committee members worked closely with the University Team in reviewing design goals and objectives, identifying available data resources, providing technical input on GIS modeling approaches, including the location of model test areas, and evaluating the model's initial results. As a whole, the Commission reviewed project progress at its quarterly meetings and provided input when requested on key project issues. Additional details on the Commission can be found in Sections 2 and 4 and in Section 8, Appendix 2.

Florida Greenways Coordinating Council

The Greenways Council was created in 1995 by the Florida Legislature. Council members were named by the Governor, Speaker of the House and President of the Senate to categories defined in the legislation. This group held its first meeting in November 1995. In 1996 and the first six months of 1997, the Council continued the project advisory role started by the Commission in 1995. In the last half of 1997, the Council and its six Regional Greenways Task forces provided critical review of the preliminary physical plan. In addition, the Council and the DEP held a second series of public forums designed to solicit input on the preliminary plan. In 1998 the Council oversaw the completion of the Implementation Plan, "Connecting Florida's Communities with Greenways and Trails". Additional details on the Greenways Council and can be found in Section 4 and Section 8, Appendix 3.

Florida Recreational Trails Council

The FRTC was created by the Florida Legislature through Chapter 260 F.S., originally passed in 1979. The committee assisted with reviews of the GIS Model and participated in the review of model results. The Trails council was also active in the development of the Implementation Plan. Additional details on the Trails Committee can be found in Section 4 and in Section 8, Appendix 3.

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Section 2

Foundations for the Design of

Florida's Statewide Greenways System

Introduction

The University's greenways system design is based on goals and objectives developed in 1995 at the start of the Project. These goals and objectives were in turn based on guiding principles from two sources. Conceptually and programmatically, the recommended design follows the findings and recommendations contained in the Florida Greenways Commission's (the Commission) December 1994 Report to the Governor. The design also reflects an integrated landscape approach that incorporates the theories and practices of a number of professional disciplines including landscape ecology and conservation biology, environmental planning and design and GIS spatial analysis. This section paraphrases and includes key excerpts from the 1994 Report to the Governor including a definition of greenways and a discussion of the benefits to be derived from greenways. A description of an integrated landscape approach to design follows and the Section concludes with an explanation of the specific goals and objectives that directed the process of greenways delineation.

The Florida Greenways Commission December 1994

Report to the Governor

The Commission's December 1994 Report to Governor Lawton Chiles provided the primary foundation for the physical design of a Statewide Greenways System. The Commission's over-riding recommendation and intent was that Florida should make a concerted effort now to create a Statewide System of Greenways linking existing and proposed conservation lands and trails. Refer to the Commission's Report (1994) or its Summary (1995) for additional details on the Commission's recommendations pertaining to the design and implementation of the Statewide Greenways System.

Defining Greenways and Greenway Systems

What is a Greenway?

The word greenway brings to mind two images: green suggests forests, fish and wildlife, river floodplains, and linear open spaces that generally are greener than adjacent lands; way implies a route or path. But greenways are really many colors. . . . blue waterways, earth-colored working landscapes, gray urban corridors. Together they describe corridors that cross a variety of landscapes, ranging from pristine natural areas to landscapes transformed by human habitation.

In his book, Greenways for America, Charles Little (1990) defines a greenway as:

· A linear open space established along either a natural corridor, such as a riverfront, stream valley, or ridgeline, or overland along a railroad right-of-way converted to recreational use, a canal, scenic road, or other route.

· Any natural or landscape course for pedestrian or bicycle passage.

· An open-space connector linking parks, nature reserves, cultural features, or historic sites with each other and with populated areas.

· Locally, certain strips or linear parks designated as a parkway or greenbelt.

Within the landscape, greenways serve at least three major functions: they protect and/or enhance remaining natural, cultural and historical resources; they provide linear open space for compatible human use; and they maintain connectivity — between conservation lands, communities, parks and other recreational facilities, and cultural and historic sites. Connectivity is a critical landscape characteristic important to the health, well-being, and aesthetic values of human communities and vital to the maintenance of functional native ecosystems and landscapes. While the ability of greenways to "link" other resources is important, not every greenway is a connector. Some stand on their own as important linear ecological resources,

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like riparian, floodplain corridors, and recreational resources, like trails and bikeways.

Greenways Diversity. Greenways can be as wide as a watershed or as narrow as a trail. Some are publicly owned; some are established on private land by easements or other methods that protect valuable natural areas and cultural/historic sites or allow public access along trails. Some are managed only to conserve native ecosystems, and some are purely recreational. Some are "green," following ridgelines or other upland features, some are "blue," following rivers and wetlands, and others are more urban in nature.

While categorizing greenways helps us understand their different forms, in reality types blend and overlap. From a conceptual standpoint, it is possible to divide greenways into different types. But in reality, all greenways fall along a continuum of natural and cultural/historical landscape features and functions and associated human uses that depend upon discrete, site-specific factors, management considerations and overall public purpose.

Greenway Landscape Features. Greenways often encompass natural landscape features, such as rivers and floodplains, ridgelines, forests, interior or coastal wetland systems, shorelines, beaches and barrier islands. They can also encompass a variety of altered or human landscape features, such as historic and archaeological sites, utility and abandoned railroad rights-of-way, canals, dikes, and roadside corridors.

What is a Statewide Greenways System?

While greenways are important conservation, recreation and cultural-historic sites in and of themselves, what sets greenways apart from other initiatives is its emphasis on connections.

Florida's system is intended to create the opportunity for the maintenance and restoration of connectivity, from North Florida to South Florida, of ecological systems, flora and fauna dependent upon them and of ecological processes. The ecological elements of the statewide system will be critical for protecting Florida's native biological diversity in the face of rapid human population growth. It is also intended to create the opportunity for trail users to travel, without interruption, from North Florida to South Florida. It is further intended to protect sites and landscapes of cultural and historic significance.

The linked landscapes have the potential to enhance the quality of the recreational experience when trails are located within them, while the trails should not compromise the environmental quality of the linked landscapes within which they occur. Cultural features also have the potential to enhance the quality of the recreational experience while the trails should not diminish the protection provided to these sites and landscapes.

Such an integrated statewide system will foster an understanding of sense of place and will enrich the quality of life for Floridians and visitors alike.

Components of a Greenways System

A greenways system is composed of hubs, links and smaller sites consisting of natural or restored native habitat as well as recreational, historical and cultural features. The hubs anchor the system and provide an origin or destination for people, wildlife and ecological processes moving to or through it. Hubs come in many different sizes, from large protected nature reserves to smaller regional preserves and parks to ecological, recreational and/or cultural/historic sites that serve as trailheads. Links are the connections that enable the system to work. They range in size and function from large ecologically-based landscape linkages to small multi-use and single use trail corridors.

Figure 2.1 Components of a Greenways System.

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Greenways systems can be designed and implemented at many different scales. A local greenways system can encompass natural, recreational and cultural/historic features within a single community or county. A regional greenways system might link conservation areas, parks and trails within one or more watersheds. A statewide greenways system can link community and regional greenways systems. Multi-state greenways systems constitute the building blocks for national conservation and recreational strategies.

Links - Many different types of links can go into creating a greenways system. For example:

· Landscape linkages. Large protected areas, such as the Pinhook Swamp that connects the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge and the Osceola National Forest, provide sufficient areas of space for native plants and animals to flourish while also serving as corridors connecting ecosystems and landscapes. Landscape linkages can also provide space for the protection of historic sites and opportunities for human use like hunting, fishing, canoeing, swimming and hiking.

· Conservation corridors. Less extensive linear protected areas, such as the upper Hillsborough River, serve as biological connecting corridors and, in many cases, also provide opportunities for compatible outdoor, resource-based recreational activities.

· Trail corridors. Designated routes, such as the Florida Trail, provide access to and appreciation of the values of natural areas and other greenspaces, present diverse resource-based outdoor recreational opportunities, and enhance the understanding of historical sites and cultural diversity. Trail corridors include linear urban open spaces, such as the Pinellas Trail, that accommodate moderate to intense recreational use for residents and visitors.

· Greenbelts. Protected natural lands or working landscapes, such as the one being planned around Lakeland, surround cities and serve to preserve native ecosystems and/or agricultural productivity as well as to balance and direct urban and suburban growth.

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· Utilitarian corridors. Linear features, such as powerline and pipeline rights-of-way and canals, may also help connect recreational, cultural or natural system features.

Hubs and Sites - System hubs and sites come in all shapes and sizes, and serve different purposes. For example:

· Reserves. Large protected areas, such as Everglades National Park/Big Cypress National Preserve, serve as primary sites for conserving biological diversity and natural resources such as fisheries and fresh water. Reserves also can protect important historical and cultural sites and provide some nature-based recreation opportunities.

· Managed Native Landscapes. Large publicly owned lands, such as the Apalachicola, Osceola, and Ocala National Forests, managed for resource extraction as well as natural and recreational values.

· Regional parks and preserves. Less extensive hubs of regional significance, like the San Felasco Hammock State Preserve outside Gainesville, or Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary in Collier County, provide ecological benefits and conserve biological diversity as well as offer important compatible resource-based recreational opportunities.

· Ecological sites. Smaller sites, such as Wakulla Springs south of Tallahassee, or Devil's Millhopper State Geological Site outside Gainesville, conserve important or unique natural or geologic features.

· Cultural/Historic/Recreational Sites. Community parks or cultural/historical sites provide recreational opportunities, help protect and interpret Florida's cultural/historic heritage, and can often serve as an origin or destination for a recreational trail and/or protect important cultural/historic features.

· Trailheads. Selected ecological, recreational or cultural/historic sites with appropriate visitor services that serve as points of origin or destination linked by trail corridors. Trailheads can occur within rural natural areas and working landscapes or within urban areas ranging from large metropolitan areas like Miami or Tampa to small communities like Arcadia or Destin. Trailheads serve as the human hubs within greenways systems.

The Benefits of Greenways and Greenways Systems

In the book, Greenways: A Guide to Planning Design and Development, Loring LaB. Schwarz (1993) points out that "any one greenway can hold many and varied values to those who use it or live nearby. It can be a non-polluting commuter route, a horse or bicycle trail, a means to promote stream-water quality or to preserve wildlife habitat, a method of buffering land uses such as residential development or agricultural activity, or a way to safeguard a viewshed or the historic character of an area."

A statewide system of greenways would have significant ecological, economic and social benefits for Florida. By helping conserve linked native ecosystems and landscapes, greenways can be an important component of a statewide, regional or local conservation strategy. Water and land pathways along greenways can provide recreational opportunities for residents and visitors and provide opportunities to enjoy Florida's unique natural environment, which can expand tourism and associated businesses. Some of the key benefits are described below:

Conservation of Native Ecosystems and Landscapes

Many isolated natural areas can better survive and adapt to changing conditions if they are linked by greenway corridors, just as human communities become more livable and vital if they too are linked by greenway corridors.

Greenways have important ecological functions that help conserve native ecosystems and landscapes. These include:

· maintaining space to sustain the biodiversity of native plant and animal communities;

· maintaining connections to allow interchange between native plant and animal populations and communities; and

· maintaining the health of native ecosystems and landscapes by sustaining their physical, chemical, and biological processes.

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Interconnected native ecosystems provide a number of other important services. They filter pollutants from the air, water, and soil; aid in cooling streams and soils through shading; protect and enhance the water quality of rivers and lakes; recharge groundwater aquifers; and buffer developed areas from floodwaters, saving lives and property. Greenways have an especially significant role in protecting water resources (e.g. riparian corridors and aquifer recharge areas) and in connecting watersheds and coastal areas, which is highly significant because of the productivity of these natural resource features and their key role in maintaining Florida's green infrastructure.

Economic Prosperity

It is imperative to recognize that a sustainable, high quality environment is necessary to maintain a vibrant economy needed to assure environmental quality. As a dynamic and growing state, Florida continually faces the critical question of how divergent interests in a community will work together to balance demands for development with the protection of natural resources. Many areas of the country have found that a system of greenways offers opportunities to support economic growth without sacrificing environmental assets. Developing and protecting greenways throughout our state could not only save Florida's landscapes but also help disadvantaged areas and weaker economies regain much sought-after stability and sustainability.

Positive economic effects of greenways accrue in several ways. First, taxable properties that are adjacent to greenways often increase in value and generate greater overall revenue for a community. According to local surveys, homes located near greenways and trails commonly sell for more than similar homes in other areas.

Conventional wisdom also tells us that businesses locate where quality of life indicators are high. There is widespread recognition that greenways help communities develop these characteristics and portray this image. Boulder, Colorado, and Raleigh, North Carolina, are examples of communities that have successfully attracted new businesses and retained existing businesses based in part on the environmental, recreational and cultural/historic amenities some of which are associated with local greenway systems..

Greenways also are magnets for attracting environmentally sensitive development. The Tennessee Riverpark in Chattanooga has demonstrated how a greenway can be used to help a community attract new residential and commercial investment. This river park has helped stimulate more than a quarter-billion dollars worth of new development in downtown Chattanooga.

Finally, small service-oriented businesses gravitate to areas where perceived consumer needs exist. Greenway users often create a demand for services, which in turn stimulates the growth of tourism-based businesses. Overnight accommodations, including bed and breakfasts, rental facilities, restaurants, art galleries and other small enterprises, often spring up in the vicinity of greenway projects.

Long-distance, multiple-use trails, such as the Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail south of Tallahassee, attract tourists and residents from surrounding counties and states. Visitors are encouraged to extend their stay in an area with amenities including trails, craft shops and other local market and cultural interests. Extended visitor stays help increase the multiplier effect of tourism dollars in given communities.

Businesses and private citizens alike recognize the relationship between a healthy environment and a prosperous economy. Today environmental concerns are among the highest priorities of every business. Private sector success depends on business' ability to integrate economic and environmental goals and incorporate the values, systems and practices of sustainable development. Greenways offer our business and industrial sectors this opportunity.

Conservation of Historical and Cultural Resources

Archaeological and historical sites can be protected, preserved, interpreted, and connected through greenways. Archaeological and historical sites provide yet another dimension to link people with the landscape; they provide a sense of place as well as a sense of origin. These sites can help people understand, interpret, and appreciate how the connections between people and the environment have developed and changed over time. Archaeological and historical sites provide a direct and unique link between people and the environment.

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Public Recreation Close to Home

Because greenways lead somewhere and can connect with other greenways that go to still more places, they attract people from all walks of life. In Ecology of Greenways, Daniel S. Smith (1993) says, "Greenways can tie communities together by linking features such as parks, historic sites, residential areas, and shopping districts and by allowing people to travel from place to place without the noise and rush of automobiles."

A statewide system of greenways will provide many opportunities for public outdoor recreation and wellness activities. Trails can provide places for visitor and resident bicyclists, hikers, walkers, joggers, rollerbladers, horseback riders and physically challenged people to exercise and experience the many natural and cultural wonders of our state. Greenways along rivers, lakes and the coast can also provide access to canoers, kayakers, and sailors. Greenways can serve as sites for passive pursuits, such as picnicking, camping, and wildlife observation. They can even serve as community gathering sites for concerts, festivals, neighborhood cookouts and family reunions.

Outdoor Education

A statewide system of greenways will provide excellent outdoor classrooms where students can learn about native plant and animal species, ecosystems, ecological processes and conservation science. Greenways can serve as living laboratories for students and as sites for studying historic, archaeological and cultural resources. Florida is rich in history, containing sites and structures from Florida's Native American people to the early pioneer days of statehood to the boom years of the Roaring Twenties. Greenway connectors that overlap historical transportation corridors offer rich opportunities to interpret history and the relationship between people and the land.

Protecting Working Landscapes

Greenways can be used to protect working landscapes such as farms, groves, and private forest lands. Some of Florida's cherished landscapes - - Marion County's horse farms, the red hills of Tallahassee, South Florida's ranch lands - - are privately owned. Some of these lands provide important habitat for sensitive species and these lands may best be perpetually maintained through private ownership. Greenways along scenic byways can provide the traveling public with a glimpse into the historic past of these lands. Greenways using conservation easements across these lands can allow traditional land uses to continue, while providing corridors for the movement of wildlife (through less intensive land uses like tree plantations and ranch lands) and, where appropriate, people, as well as important habitat for some sensitive wildlife species. Since the primary purpose of these lands is not resource preservation but resources used for economic gain, it is often overlooked that these privately owned lands can provide valuable environmental benefits, especially if they are managed in an environmentally sensitive manner.

Influencing Urban Form

Greenways can provide important growth management benefits. Areas of protected lands around and through Florida's towns and cities can help shape urban form and mitigate urban sprawl. Greenways can help maintain delineations between urban and rural land uses. Also known as greenbelts, agricultural reserves or buffer lands, privately and publicly owned greenways are potentially valuable growth management tools.

Providing Alternative Transportation

Greenways and trails can serve as alternative transportation routes for commuting to work or school, bicycling or walking to local businesses or restaurants, visiting parks and recreation sites, or sightseeing. Trails often can be designed in conjunction with utility corridors and pipelines. These alternative forms of transportation, if made convenient by greenways, can help reduce air pollution and road congestion.

Commission's Vision

The Commission's vision statement represented the members shared hopes, dreams and desires for the Statewide Greenways System. The following design guidance is extracted from the Report's vision statement (Florida Greenways Commission 1994, p. 1).

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In the 21st century, Florida has a protected system of greenways that is planned and managed to conserve native landscapes, ecosystems and their species; and to connect people to the land and their archaeological, historic and cultural resources. From Key West to Pensacola, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, people in Florida are within a few minutes of a system of greenways that they can transverse via foot, bicycle, horse or canoe. Some greenways are public lands and others are private lands, and still others are combinations of the two. . . . Florida has a carefully planned greenways system that interconnects fragmented or isolated elements of green infrastructure, and that connects people with their natural, historic and cultural heritage. Parks and open spaces are linked, where appropriate, by multiuse corridors that provide opportunities for hiking, bicycling, horseback riding, canoeing, alternative transportation and use by persons with disabilities. Florida's history and geography come alive as users explore old trails, roads, canals, rivers and archaeological sites. Preserved historic homes, museums and monuments along the way provide a link to Florida's roots. Florida's diverse wildlife species are able to move between feeding and shelter areas within their ranges with less danger of being killed on roadways or becoming lost in towns or cities. Native landscapes and ecosystems are protected, managed, and restored through strong public and private partnerships. Sensitive riverine and coastal waterways are effectively protected by buffers of green, open space and working landscapes. . . . Florida's rich system of greenways helps sustain Florida's future by conserving its green infrastructure, by providing continuing economic benefits, by connecting people with their natural, historic and cultural heritage, and by improving the quality of life for people.

As stated by Lieutenant Governor and Commission Chair Buddy MacKay at the start of the Commission's Summary Report, "The Commission's vision for Florida represents a new way of looking at conservation, an approach that emphasizes the interconnections of both our natural systems and our common goals". "Just as we carefully plan the infrastructure our communities need to support the people who live there — the roads, water and electricity — so must we begin to plan and manage Florida's green infrastructure." Simply put, this "green infrastructure" is the system of native ecosystems and landscapes that supports Florida's plant and animal species, sustains clean air, water, fisheries and other natural resources, and maintains the scenic natural beauty that draws people to visit and settle in Florida.

Commission's Concept

The Commission's concept was that the Statewide System would be composed of two sub-systems or networks: an Ecological Network, consisting of ecological hubs, linkages and sites along rivers, coastlines and across watersheds; and a Recreational/Cultural Network, with trail corridors connecting parks, urban areas, working landscapes and cultural/historic sites. That doesn't mean the Commission recommended forging connections for connections' sake alone or shifting the focus of conservation land acquisition from protecting large, functioning ecological preserves to protecting greenways. It was the Commission's opinion that greenways is not a "connect-the-dots" concept applied without justifiable ecological or human need, but that connecting greenways and core reserves results in a system that is truly greater than the sum of its parts.

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The Commission recommended creating a Statewide System that integrates natural and human environments and includes natural areas, open spaces, trails, cultural and historical resources and corridors for wildlife and people. The primary goal of the Statewide Greenways System is to link existing hubs of natural and recreational resources, and historic, cultural and recreational sites (including the state's urban and rural communities) throughout Florida. In doing this, it was the Commission's opinion that the state has the opportunity to conserve native landscapes and ecosystems while reconnecting Floridians with their natural, historical and cultural heritage.

As proposed by the Commission, the Statewide Greenways System would be built upon the state's 7.5 million acres of conservation land, 3500 miles of existing trails and numerous and diverse historic and cultural sites. The system would be designed to encompass a diversity of landscapes and features, ranging from natural areas to urban environments, and incorporate, where appropriate, private as well as publicly owned lands. It was the Commission's opinion that Florida's Statewide Greenways System should be built utilizing the excellent programs and projects already in place. Further, it was the Commission's clear intent to develop a Statewide Greenways System that relies on the voluntary participation of landowners and recognizes the importance of protecting private property rights.

The Commission believed that the creation of the Statewide Greenways System was critical for Florida's environmentally and economically sustainable future. It was the Commission's opinion that the Statewide System would be essential to the protection of Florida's diverse natural and cultural resources while providing opportunities for outdoor recreation and enjoyment for the state's residents and visitors. In addition, the Commission believed that the greenways system would provide economic benefits and improve the quality of life for Florida's residents and visitors.

Commission Guidelines

After a year and a half of studying successful greenways both in Florida and around the country, the Commission identified 11 broad guidelines for creating and managing Florida's Statewide Greenways System. The following five guidelines relate directly to the design of the Statewide System (Florida Greenways Commission 1994, pp. 17-18):

Greenways generally are composed of natural vegetation or at least vegetation that is more natural than that of surrounding areas. Greenways formed from natural linear features usually contain functional native plant and animal communities. Greenways along human corridors can vary in their "green-ness" from communities of native vegetation to altered lands with

Figure 2.2 Florida Greenways Commission's Concept for a Statewide Greenways System

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a range of native species. Some greenways are actually "blue" when they follow waterways or even occasionally "gray" urban recreational areas.

Greenways provide connections and thereby foster movement. Many things can move through greenways, from wildlife, water, and soil nutrients through or along greenways based on natural communities, to people using a wide variety of trails in greenways based on natural or altered landscapes. While most greenways are meant for non-motorized transportation only, some (like the Suwannee River and the canopy roads of Tallahassee and Leon County) may also accommodate motorized uses.

Greenways may cross lands of different ownership. A greenway can cross property that is publicly or privately owned. In fact, greenways often consist of both public and private lands. Creation of greenways therefore depends upon establishing cooperative relationships between landowners and users. In many cases, privately-owned greenways are key components of greenways systems.

Greenways can provide a multitude of functions and benefits. Greenways and greenways systems can serve many functions and be used in many different ways, but all uses and functions are simply not possible at all locations. As an example, a river's wetland floodplain, acquired for unique native plant communities, fish and wildlife movement opportunities and protection of water quality and quantity, is not an appropriate site for intensive recreational use and the development of permanent recreational facilities. In the same way an intensively used, inner-city rail-trail may not be an appropriate site for restoring native ecosystems.

The components of a greenways system should not be connected simply for connection's sake but should be connected based on careful planning. Connections should be based on detailed assessments of potential sites and surrounding features as well as current resource conservation and/or recreational principles. The design and location of future landscape linkages and conservation greenways must be justified based on valid ecological assessments and the principles of conservation biology and landscape ecology. To that same end cultural/historic and recreational greenways must be planned based on a careful documentation of the cultural/historic features to be protected and the recreational needs to be met.

Integrated Landscape Approach

The University Team used an integrated landscape approach in the formulation of its design goals and objectives and in the subsequent development of the physical plan for the Statewide Greenways System. This approach, which incorporates environmental analysis, planning and design at the landscape/regional scale, ensured that a diversity of natural and cultural resource issues were taken into consideration during the design. Together, the following concepts and practices constitute the disciplinary foundation for the recommended plan.

Defining Characteristics, Guiding Concepts

Integrated landscape analysis, planning and design represents a new approach to addressing the interrelationships and interactions between humans and the natural world. As opposed to earlier approaches, an integrated landscape approach incorporates a number of defining characteristics including:

· System-Wide as opposed to Site -Specific - by definition, a landscape approach focuses broadly on the landscape as a whole and on the inter-relationships between all of its components (both biological and physical) and associated ecological processes. In contrast, traditional land use planning and environmental analysis concentrates on the characteristics of the particular site under study, with little or no consideration of surrounding features or impacts. It is felt by many that the failure over the past decades to adequately protect native ecosystems and landscapes was largely due to this site-specific approach to environmental review and permitting. To that end, many of today's environmental planning and design programs emphasize and incorporate a system-wide focus to ensure that all characteristics and potential ramifications are considered.

· Applied at Multiple Scales - an integrated landscape approach recognizes the importance of considering features and inter-relationships at many scales across the world's landscape, ranging from micro (a site) to meso (a region) to macro (a continent). The factor that distinguishes this multi-scale approach from older single site/single scale approaches is that in integrated landscape design, all scales are considered together and not separately.

· Crosses Political Boundaries - the world is characterized by many political boundaries, for example, boundaries

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delineating land ownership and boundaries delineating governing regions (county, state, country). Although such boundaries carry weight in our legal system, they are largely artificial when it comes to the range of native ecosystems and their characteristic flora and fauna. Although an integrated landscape approach may recognize politically established boundaries in the evaluation of results, natural ecological boundaries not political boundaries are used to set the parameters and focus of environmental analysis, planning and design activities.

· Integrates Ecological & Cultural Considerations - at its origin, the focus of the science of ecology was the natural world. Humans and their culture were not considered in ecology and by ecologists and were instead studied by professionals with different backgrounds and career paths. Although this distinction is not made today, natural and cultural features and relationships are still evaluated in many cases by different experts with little interaction. An understanding of both natural and cultural features and their relationships is critical to an integrated landscape approach. Under this approach, every effort is made to involve both natural and cultural resource experts and to develop procedures that incorporate natural and cultural features as part of the same broad spectrum.

· Multi-Disciplinary/Multi-Sector - Traditional methods of analysis are usually characterized by professionals from a single discipline or sector working separately and making recommendations based on his/her narrow focus of expertise and experience. In contrast, an integrated landscape approach strives to involve experts and methods from a diversity of professional disciplines and sectors (e.g. government vs. private nonprofit) and produce recommendations that integrate the combined expertise of all involved. To this end, an integrated landscape approach necessitates the creation of teams of experts from many fields as well as the training of future professionals with broader, multi-disciplinary backgrounds. .

In addition to these defining characteristics, there are a number of guiding concepts that are fundamental to an integrated landscape approach. These include:

· Sound Basis in Ecological and Environmental Sciences - Due to its focus on landscape features and processes, an integrated landscape approach relies on a thorough understanding and incorporation of principles and methodologies from diverse ecological and environmental sciences (e.g. plant and animal ecology, geology, geography). Without this sound basis in ecological and environmental sciences, the results of a landscape analysis would at best be incomplete.

· Consideration of Context as well as Content - A fundamental concept of landscape ecology is that the study of content alone (e.g. the study of flora, fauna and processes within a single site or managed area) is not sufficient to understand relationships or predict long-term outcomes of natural or man-made alterations. Rather, landscape ecologists emphasize that an analysis of the context (e.g. the surrounding biological and physical factors) is critical to understanding and predicting change in native ecosystems and landscapes. To this end, context as well as content must be incorporated into an integrated landscape approach.

· Link between Ecosystem/Land Use Components & Processes over Space & Time - Individual ecosystems and land use types represent the fundamental building blocks of the landscape. The science of ecology teaches us that ecosystems and their associated flora, fauna and processes change over space (e.g. moving from low to high elevation or from one to another latitude and longitude) and time (e.g. daily and/or annually). The pattern and rate of growth and other variations in land use likewise vary over space (the desert southwest vs. the metropolitan east coast) and time. Critical to an integrated landscape approach then is a realization that what exists on the landscape now is not static but instead is ever changing. For this reason analysis and an understanding of changes over space and time is critical to the success and predictions of an integrated landscape approach.

· Green Infrastructure as a Central Organizing Theme for Planning & Design Activities - The use of the term "green infrastructure" has increased dramatically over the last few years. Taken from the vocabulary of growth management, green infrastructure (or ecological infrastructure) is considered to be the protected natural and/or restored native ecosystems and green spaces that are needed to ensure the well-being and quality of life for our world's human inhabitants, flora and fauna. Inherent in the use of the term infrastructure is also the requirement that such natural lands and green spaces are a part of a functionally interconnected system and not isolated or functionally disjointed. Because connectivity and functionality are important theories common to an integrated landscape approach, the planning and implementation of green infrastructure

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throughout the landscape is an important theme for environmental analysis, planning and design activities.

Disciplinary and Programmatic Origin

The University Team consisted of professors, research scientists and graduate students from a number of University of Florida departments and programs including the Department of Landscape Architecture, the Department of Urban and Regional Planning and its GeoPlan Center and the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation's Program in Landscape Ecology. To that end, the University Team's integrated landscape approach incorporated the theories and principles of a number of different professional disciplines, including:

· Conservation Biology & Landscape Ecology - Conservation biology is a relatively new, synthetic field that explores and applies biological and ecological principles to the conservation of biological diversity. Landscape ecology is the study of large heterogeneous areas, which includes landscape elements such as forests, wetlands, lakes, rivers, seashores, pastures, croplands, and suburban and urban lands. Landscape ecology emphasizes broad spatial scales and the interactions between spatial patterning and ecological processes (Turner 1989), and it is instrumental for understanding the impacts of human-dominated environments on natural areas, wildlife, and water. Such research indicates that spatial patterning of land uses is very important for determining ecosystem function, which has lead one of the most influential landscape ecologists to develop the ethics of isolation:

"Simply stated, in land use decisions and actions, it is unethical to evaluate an area in isolation from its surroundings or from its development over time. Ethics impel us to consider an area in its broadest spatial and temporal perspectives." (Forman 1987)

Conservation biology, landscape ecology, and the imperative of the ethics of isolation have greatly influenced the development of the science and policy of reserve design over the last few decades. Reserves are areas protected to conserve biological diversity as well as other natural resources which potentially includes national parks, wilderness areas, as well as lands such as national forests where multiple uses are allowed but still have some conservation function. Since the reports of Wright et al. (1933) and Wright and Thompson (1934) there has been a growing awareness that typical protected areas such as national parks would often not be sufficient to protect viable populations of sensitive species and biological diversity as a whole (Harris et al. 1996). In response, comprehensive, regional strategies for conservation are evolving to effectively integrate the protection of biological diversity and other natural resources with the development of sustainable economies. Regional landscape conservation is a strategy that recognizes the importance of interactions between the built environment, rural lands, and native ecosystems. It incorporates planning and management at appropriately large spatial and temporal scales so that land uses are effectively integrated to maximize compatibility. Integrated conservation efforts at the regional landscape scale will be most effective when they include the protection of ecological conservation networks, which are systems of reserves, conservation areas, buffer zones, landscape linkages and corridors that function as units to effectively conserve biological diversity over long time scales. The Ecological Network modeling as part of the Florida Greenways Project is an effort to identify such a network to conserve Florida's biological diversity in the midst of a burgeoning human population.

· Advanced Computer Technology & Analysis - The integration of computer driven technology and, in particular, computer spatial analysis is a powerful means for the merging of multi-disciplinary activities. The development of spatial models is improved by the integration of multi-disciplinary ideas, and the use of advanced computer systems such as geographic information systems (GIS). Spatial analysis is a methodology for looking at the interaction of processes within an overlay approach. Data layers such as soil, topography, geology, hydrography, cultural amenities, species occurrence, habitat, and many others can be integrated in a synergistic model that then allows professional to develop holistic plans. The "Florida Greenways Model" is the synergistic integration of spatial analysis in support of a multi-disciplinary planning/design activity.

· Environmental Planning & Design - This sub-discipline derived from the larger disciplines of landscape architecture and urban and regional planning strives to plan and design places based on the analysis of cultural features in concert with their natural setting (flora, fauna and processes). It strives to combine knowledge gained from art and science for sound decision making. Landmark works which have helped to lay a foundation for this area of focus included Ian McHarg's Design with Nature (1969) and the work of Frederick Law Olmsted, Philip H. Lewis, Jr., Patrick Geddes, Benton MacKaye, and John

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Tillman Lyle.

Goals and Objectives for Designing the Statewide Greenways System

The formulation of goals and objectives were fundamental to the University Team's efforts to develop a physical design for Florida's Statewide Greenways System. The initial step of the process was a review of the goals, strategies and recommended actions contained in the Florida Greenways Commission's December 1994 Report to the Governor. To accomplish this, all goals, strategies and recommended actions were sorted into eight categories. Those goals, strategies and recommended actions that were most relevant to the Statewide Greenways System Planning Project tasks fell into the "Process Suggestions" and "System Design Goals and Objectives" categories. Once all relevant goals, strategies and recommended actions were taken from the Commission's Report, the University Team added other statements and/or interpretations to clarify the direction the University Team intended to take. The Team then prepared a set of draft goals and objectives and presented them to the members of the Commission's System Design Committee for review and comment. After a number of iterations the goals and objectives were presented to DEP staff and the members of the Commission and the Council for their input. Following the receipt of all comments, the following final Goals and Objectives were adopted and subsequently utilized to guide all the steps within the system design process.

Goal 1: Use a regional landscape approach to design an ecologically functional Statewide Greenways System that: (1) conserves critical elements of Florida's green infrastructure of native ecosystems and landscapes; (2) restores and maintains essential connectivity among diverse native ecological systems and processes; (3) facilitates the ability of these ecosystems and landscapes to function as dynamic systems; and (4) maintains the evolutionary potential that will allow the biota of these ecosystems and landscapes to adapt to future environmental changes.

A) Include ecological elements that:

· protect ecosystems, landscapes and processes native to Florida across their natural range of distribution and variation, including coastal, riverine and upland landscapes, while giving special consideration to those inadequately protected by existing conservation programs;

· protect the full range of Florida's biodiversity including viable populations of native plant and animal species that are endangered, threatened, rare or otherwise imperiled;

· conserve Florida's surficial and ground water resources for the benefit of the state's native ecosystems, landscapes, residents and visitors;

· incorporate ecologically compatible working landscapes that minimize the impact of natural disturbances such as fire on the human-built environment and/or minimize the impacts of human-built environments on native ecosystems and landscapes;

· incorporate degraded lands that through restoration will enhance the ecological function of the Statewide Greenways System.

B) Incorporate functional ecological linkages, including river floodplains, ridgelines and other linear native landscape features that will enhance the ecological viability and manageability of presently isolated biological reserves.

C) Design the ecological elements to absorb and dissipate the effects of naturally occurring events, such as hurricanes, fire, and flood across the landscape when management so dictates.

D) Maintain ecological and evolutionary processes, such as disturbance regimes, nutrient cycles, biotic interactions and range shifts, by protecting functionally juxtaposed landscape gradients of aquatic, wetland and upland ecosystems.

Goal 2: Incorporate appropriate urban open spaces, working landscapes, historic sites and cultural resources into the Statewide Greenways System.

A) Include working landscapes that contribute to conservation in ways that respect private property rights and interests.

B) Incorporate historic landscapes and other historic and cultural resources to demonstrate the continually evolving relationship between land and people.

C) Design greenway alignments to access traditional locations for cultural events.

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D) Include native ecosystems and landscapes that contain physical and/or cultural components such as geological sites and archaeological sites where protection of these features is commensurate with protection of the native ecosystems.

Goal 3: Include trails in the Statewide Greenways System to provide public access to and promote appreciation, support and conservation of the System's natural, cultural and historic features, and to provide opportunities for alternative, non-motorized transportation.

A) Design, construct, use, manage and maintain trails in ways that are compatible with ecosystem conservation objectives and the stewardship goals of the landowner or manager.

B) Promote connectivity between recreation areas, archaeological and historic sites and scenic features.

C) Use appropriate existing and future linear facilities, such as transportation, utility, canal and other human-built corridors, as connecting links.

Goal 4: Design the Elements of the Statewide Greenways System to enhance users' greenways experience.

A) Include significant visual features to promote appreciation and enjoyment of Florida's unique landscapes and heritage.

B) Use design principles that give importance to the aesthetic value of landscapes.

C) Provide for the physical safety and security of users of all levels of ability.

Goal 5: Design the elements of the Statewide Greenways System to facilitate multiple uses and avoid conflicts in use.

A) Incorporate lands that represent a gradient of management objectives from full protection of native features to compatible working landscapes.

B) Design greenways that are planned to accommodate human access and functional ecological processes to meet both the needs of humans and the spatial and temporal needs of native plants and animals.

The completion of these goals and objectives was a critical first step in the physical design of Florida's Statewide Greenways System model because they laid a strong foundation for the subsequent design process. A detailed discussion of the University Team's system design process is found in the following section.

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Section 3

The Florida Greenways GIS Decision Support Model

This section describes the Florida Greenways Decision Support Model (hereafter referred to as the Model). It includes a section on GIS principles applied in the Model and the process used in the development and application of the Model, including technical review. A detailed description of the Model itself follows and the section concludes with a description of results.

The Model was named a Decision Support Model because it was intended to be the first step in delineating or deciding upon a physical plan for the Statewide Greenways System, the results of which were not to be accepted verbatim. As described in the Sections 4 and 5, the Decision Support Model Results were modified in subsequent steps to produce a recommended physical plan.

GIS Principles Applied in Modeling the Statewide Greenways System

The University used a geographic information system (GIS) model to define and identify the best locations for greenways within the state. The Model was developed based upon basic raster or cellular geographic information analysis. The principles of geographic analysis are well documented in many geographic information systems texts (Borrough, 1981: Tomlin, 1990: Worral, 1991: Huxhold, 1991: Davis, 1996: etc.), and will be briefly discussed here to provide a basic understanding of technology utilized for the Florida Greenways project.

GIS Basics

A GIS is defined as a collection of information technology, data, and procedures for collecting, storing, retrieving, manipulating, analyzing, and presenting maps and descriptive information about features that can be represented on maps (Huxhold, 1995: p 3). GIS data representing surface features are organized into individual data layers. Data layers within a GIS are normally organized to represent individual themes, such as topography, habitat or hydrology. Multiple thematic data layers can then be overlaid, one on top of the other, to produce a map or to perform some analysis, such as locating all the residential property adjacent to water and within a mile of a major roadway (Figure 3.1).

There are two types of geographic information systems, vector and raster. A vector geographic information system represents surface features using points, lines, or area objects. For example, property parcels could be represented by an area object, called a polygon, while streams would be represented by line objects (Figure 3.2). A point object would be used to represent wells. Each object type in a vector based system also contains attribute information about each surface feature, such as the name of the interstate highway, the type of surface pavement used for the highway, or the classification of the highway by average daily trip capacity.

Figure 3.1: Multiple data layers are used to represent the surface of the Earth (from Tomlin, 1990: p7).

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Figure 3.2: Vector GIS are constructed of points, lines, and polygon objects. These objects are often referred to as line drawing objects because the GIS is constructed of traditional mapping objects.

Raster or cellular GIS data are constructed by organizing surface features into uniform cells (see Figure 3.3). Each raster cell then represents a specific area on a surface, and contains attributes about the surface. For example, habitat data can be represented by raster cells that cover a specified area and contain the type of habitat found within each cell unit. In the Greenways Model, each cell used to represent spatial features was 180 x 180 meters and contained a specific attribute characteristic about the surface, such as habitat type, landuse category, or roadway location.

Figure 3.3: Raster based GIS uses cells to represent surface features (from Tomlin, 1990: p 9).

Cellular models have the ability to look at cells from many data layers (Figure 3.4) and to use the advantage of common cell location, between layers, to accomplish complex geographic or spatial analysis.

Figure 3.4: Raster models have the ability to access cells, having the same spatial location, within many layers of data. This is perhaps the most powerful advantage for raster models when compared with vector models (from Tomlin, 1990: p 39).

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Conversion of GIS Features into a Raster Data Structure for Modeling

Modern GIS software allows for the conversion of vector data, i.e., the point, line, and polygon objects, into raster data rapidly and with little difficulty. Figure 3.5 shows the conversion of line features, such as a river, into cells for use within a GIS raster model. Each layer in a raster data model has cells which correspond to cell locations in other raster data layers. Once data have been converted into a raster data structure, modeling activity is possible by utilizing cell attributes for the cells across many data layers. Computer programming can then be applied to the model to determine the suitability of specific cell locations for a particular use, such as the locations of all cells suitable for a backcountry hiking trail.

Figure 3.5: Conversion of vector GIS data to raster GIS data is rapidly accomplished with modern GIS software (from Davis, 1996: p 106).

Advantages of Cellular GIS Models

Cellular GIS data have many advantages for surface modeling. Database size can be greatly reduced when data are stored as cells, rather than as polygons, because of raster compression techniques. Modeling with "Map Algebra," the ability to write algebraic equations for cells between data layers, is more flexible and complete than overlay analysis techniques in vector GIS. Additionally, the ability to develop a suitability surface with cellular GIS data allows for the more efficient modeling of site locations, such as the location of trail corridors (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6: The development of suitability surfaces provides raster GIS models with a powerful tool for identifying locations based upon best suitability (from Tomlin 1990).

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Spatial Analysis Basics

Cellular based geographic information analysis is accomplished by the utilization of basic functions. These functions can be aggregated into three categories, local, focal, and zonal. Each of these function groups was employed in the Greenways Model.

Local functions are functions that act on only one cell per layer (Figure 3.7). Local functions are most commonly used to calculate mathematical equations between layers. The output from a local function is a new raster layer with the result of the query or mathematical analysis from the input layer(s). The simplest local functions reclassify data from one raster layer into a new layer with the data presented in a different classification. An example would be the reclassification of habitat data into a more simplified wetland/upland split. However, more complex reclassifications can be performed with local functions. A local function could be used to query many GIS raster layers in order to determine the best location for commercial activity (Figure 3.8). This type of reclassification is called "suitability analysis." The reclassification for suitability can be very complicated, requiring many queries between multiple raster GIS layers.

Figure 3.7: Local cellular analysis functions act one cell per layer and produce a new raster data layer with the results of the analysis from the input layers (from Tomlin, 1990).

Figure 3.8: The darkest regions indicate the areas which are most suitable for the location of new commercial establishments (from Tomlin, 1990: p 81).

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Focal functions allow the aggregation or identification of data within a specified area, called a neighborhood (Figure 3.9). The output from a focal function is a raster layer where the individual cells have summary information within the neighborhood of interest from the input layers. For example, the diversity of a selected neighborhood around a specific cell in a raster layer can be calculated by counting the types of habitat in the neighborhood and providing an output layer where each cell has the total number of different habitats inside the neighborhood.

Figure 3.9: Focal cellular analysis acts by summarizing data within a specified neighborhood and produces a new raster data layer with the results of the summarization (from Tomlin, 1990: p 97).

A zone in raster GIS are all cells in the data layer with the same attribute value. Raster regions are zones that have the same attribute data that are isolated in space (Figure 3.10). Zonal functions aggregate or summarize data from many raster layers by using specified zones from a separate raster layer containing the zone data. For example, by using zones from a city raster layer a zonal function could calculate the population density from a raster layer of census population. Additionally, zonal functions could be utilized to calculate the acreage of particular greenways hubs, which could then be utilized to remove hubs with less than a specified acreage minimum. Zones can be reduced to smaller regions by specifying that each zone be comprised of contiguous cells with the same zonal characteristics.

Figure 3.10: Two regions occurring within one zone are spatially distinct areas with the same attribute value (from Tomlin, 1990: p 155).

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Map Algebra

Map algebra is the methodology for modeling in a raster GIS environment. The ability to analyze data, cell by cell, between raster layers is critical to greenways identification and location. Data analysis between raster layers can be complex (Figure 3.11), producing new raster data layers which are often used to complete additional modeling or analysis.

Figure 3.11: Data analysis between raster layers can be complex, producing new raster data layers that are often used to complete additional analysis. Layers "A" and "E" are manipulated to produce a new raster layer "G." Layer "G" is then used with layers "C" and "F" to produce new raster layer "H" (from Tomlin, 1990: p 52).

The analysis between raster layers is accomplished by using map algebra. Additionally, map algebra provides GIS modelers with the ability to perform complex cell based mathematics that may be replicated by peers, given the same input data. Figure 3.12 shows the map algebra relationships developed for an example raster model.

Figure 3.12: Map algebra is used to create raster layer "G" by dividing the cell values in layer "E" by the cell values in layer "A." the new raster layer "G" is then added to layers "F" and "C" to produce another raster layer "H" (from Tomlin, 1990: p 53).

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The previous model, presented in abstract, could be used to determine the suitability for locations of new commercial establishments in a selected area, or to locate new recreational for Florida's greenways network. The concepts are similar for layer analysis, only the map algebra relationships change. In general modeling, and more specifically raster GIS modeling, is a method for simplifying real world data for analysis and understanding. The GIS modeler must clearly state the data requirements for all layer relationships, identifying which surface features are of importance to the model, how those feature relationships are to be developed, and what priorities exist within the layer relationships. Once these have been identified the model development can proceed. Once processed the model can then be modified based upon the interim results. Additionally, multiple applications of the model and new modifications to the model allow the analyst to develop a greater understanding of the system and to make better planning decisions. Each individual and /or successive applications of the model program provide greater insight into the complexity of the "real world" process described by the model.

Suitability Surface Development

Suitability surface development is an application of the raster modeling basics discussed in the previous sections. A suitability surface is constructed by utilizing map algebra relationships between appropriate raster layers. For example, the selection of suitable locations for a recreational trail might be accomplished by organizing a complex map algebra relationship to accomplish the following requirements (Figure 3.13). A recreational trail suitability surface will be utilized to locate a backcountry trail, by assigning suitability measures for the following criteria:

1. the trail will not be located within 1000 meters of dense urbanized areas,

2. the trail will be allowed to cross wetlands, conservation lands, and large

agricultural lands which are primarily used for forestry, and

3. the trail will not be allowed to cross open water without crossing at an existing bridge location, nor be allowed to cross hazardous areas (e.g., bombing ranges).

Figure 3.13: Suitability surface for recreational trail location. Using the suitability surface for the location of a recreational trail, the computer identifies the best location for the backcountry trail. The first identification is for the location of bridges and the distance from roads. The second identification is for wetlands and other land use categories. The darker cell areas have a higher suitability for trail location. The model selects the most suitable trail location.

Suitability is a Mathematical Problem

While the development of a suitability model in concept seems simple, in practice there exists a problem. The problem arises from the fact that you can not mathematically combine data that measure different things (i.e. physical characteristics within the environment). This can be commonly stated as "you can't combine apples and oranges". For example, suppose you know that landuse, proximity to scenic views, and moderate inclined slopes are highly desired for the development of backcountry biking trails. You can't add raster data classified by land use with raster data representing elevation or slope to define suitability, mathematically the addition of these data is meaningless. The solution to this problem is to re-organize

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these individual data layers into utility units of the same measure. Those utility units can then be mathematically manipulated to create a suitability surface for modeling backcountry biking trail locations or other opportunities. In other words, you must ask the same question of all the data layers.

Data Measures

There are four ways to measure data: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Nominal measurements are not actually measurements. They are a name assignment to represent some characteristic for identification, for example landuse classifications like residential and agriculture. No math is legal for nominal data (e.g. it doesn't make sense to add landuse codes together). Ordinal measurement ranks entities relative to one another. For example the rankings for college football teams. As with nominal data no math is allowed for ordinal data, but testing for relative position is allowed (e.g., show values greater than 4). Therefore, ordinal measurements indicate that one entry in a list is better or more important than other entries in the same list. Interval measurements indicate the magnitude of difference between entities, but not between a value and zero. For example two portions of a travel route are 3 miles and 10 miles in length, respectively. The second route portion is 7 miles longer than the first, however without knowing how far the total route is the difference between route segments could be large or small. It is appropriate to add and subtract interval data, but not to multiply or divided this type of data. Ratio measurements have magnitude and that magnitude is the difference between the value and zero. Suppose the total route traveled from above was 50 miles, the difference between the second and first routes (10 _ 3) / 50 = 0.14 represents 14% of the total miles traveled. All mathematics is valid for ratio data.

Figure 3.14: Landuse classification as nominal measurement where identification is by name.

Given that some types of data measurements are mathematically limited, such as the landuse shown in Figure 3.14, the creation of a suitability surface can become complicated. Using GIS query and reclassification functions modelers can re-organize all four data measurement types to produce a surface that represents suitability.

Single Utility Assignment (SUA)

The assignment of utility provides a means of representing all data values with regard to the same goal, in this case, suitability for use as an backcountry biking trail. The process of transforming values of individual data layers, such as landuse or elevation, into a measure of utility is called a single utility assignment (SUA). Individual landuse categories are transformed by rank order (assigned a numerical value) to represent the single utility of landuse for backcountry biking trails. Elevation data are used to rank order slope and aspect areas with respect to the single utility for backcountry bikers. It is important to understand that the single rank order measures clearly represent utility on an interval scale. Therefore with respect to landuse reclassification for suitability assignment (Table 3.1 and Figure 3.15), a hardwood hammock's SUA of 8 is 7 SUA(s) better than a commercial services SUA of 1.

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Table 3.1: Reclassification of Landuse for Single Utility Assignment

Landuse Classification Trail Utility

Commercial Services 1 Lowest Utility

Cypress Dome 1

Residential 2

Regional Shopping Malls 2

Backwater Swamp 3

Hard